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The Deadliest Natural Disaster in U.S. History

September 8, 2023September 16, 202320th Century, US HistoryLeave a Comment

On September 8, 1900, a hurricane hit Galveston, an island just off the coast of Texas. To this day, that hurricane remains the deadliest natural disaster in our nation’s history, with an estimated 8,000 deaths and an almost complete destruction of the city itself. The effect of the Great Galveston Hurricane lasted long after the city was rebuilt. Galveston, which had previously been the largest port city in Texas lost that designation to nearby Houston, and the people and money went with it.

In September 1900, Galveston and its 40,000 residents enjoyed the growth and prosperity of being the leading port city in Texas. While the US Weather Bureau were aware of the storm brewing in the Gulf Coast at the beginning of the month, the hurricane veered last minute toward the Texas coast. They did not have the advanced tracking or communication systems of today, so they were unable to say where the storm might head. Unfortunately, the hurricane proved more violent than anyone had predicted. Winds swirled at 130 mph and a storm surge of over 15 feet swept over the city. As the city flooded, residents sought refuge in the tallest and sturdiest buildings in the city, including the Tremont Hotel and St. Mary’s Infirmary.

The next day, the New York Times reported, “All Texas is in the keenest state of doubt and uncertainty to-night concerning the fate of Galveston Island and city. There is a suspicion that an awful calamity rests behind the lack of information from the Gulf coast. . . bridges leading from the mainland to the island have been swept away by the terrible force of the wind . . . not a wire is working into Galveston, either telegraph or telephone.” Those who were on the island the next day painted a gruesome picture of the state of the city. One such account reads, “On Sunday morning, after the storm was all over, I went out into the streets and the most horrible sights that you can ever imagine. I gazed upon dead bodies lying here and there. The houses all blown to pieces; women, men, and children all walking the streets in a weak condition with bleeding heads and bodies and feet all torn to pieces with glass where they had been treading through the debris of fallen buildings.”

After dealing with the initial devastation, the residents of Galveston Island mustered the strength and courage to rebuild. They raised the entire city, including utilities, businesses, and homes almost 10 feet. They built an impressive 17-foot-tall seawall that stretches now for 10 miles. Despite the resilience shown by the people of Galveston, the city never returned to its former glory. People chose to build their lives and businesses on the mainland, where they felt safer, and Galveston lost its position as main shipping port of Texas to the city of Houston.

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Jesse James: Legend or Myth?

September 5, 2023September 16, 2023Civil War, US History1 Comment

On September 5, 1847, Jesse James was born in Clay County, Missouri. His name and life would go on to be memorialized in dime novels, western movies, and stage productions. But how accurate are these depictions? Was Jesse James really the Robin Hood type that he built himself up to be? Or was he a disenfranchised young man bitter about the Confederate loss of the Civil War intent on taking as many lives as he could for revenge?

At the time of the Civil War, Jesse James and his family were slaveowners who lived on a hemp farm in Western Missouri. Jesse watched his older brother, Frank, go off to fight for the Confederates and soon left home himself, joining a guerilla group of Confederates at the age of 16. This group, led by “Bloody Bill” Anderson, committed many atrocities, including the massacre of unarmed Union sympathizers.

After the war ended, Jesse and his brother Frank weren’t ready to give up fighting. The brothers were angry at the Confederate loss and felt at odds with the efforts of Reconstruction. They began robbing banks, stores, and stagecoaches all over the state. Jesse loved the notoriety of committing these crimes and began leaving press releases behind at the locations of his robberies. He wanted to paint himself as a Robin Hood character who was stealing from the rich Union government to give back to poor Missourians who had been left with nothing after the war. In truth, there is no evidence that Jesse ever gave away any of his ill-gotten gains.

Interestingly enough, despite the dearth of evidence that Jesse James actually was any kind of hero during his life, he has become a western legend. American history has romanticized the life of the Reconstruction-era outlaw, dedicating ballads and films to their adventures. This is true of Jesse James, whose story has been told by musicians like Van Morrison and Bruce Springsteen and portrayed by Rob Lowe and Brad Pitt. So, the question is, how did Jesse James earn himself the hero trope?

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60 Years Ago: I Have a Dream

August 29, 2023August 29, 2023US HistoryLeave a Comment

60 years ago, today, on August 28, 1963, over 250,000 people gathered near the Lincoln Memorial in Washington D.C. In search of freedom and jobs, this group marched on Washington demanding equality under the law. The impact of this march cannot be understated. It is believed that this event built the momentum needed in the Civil Rights Movement to pass the Civil Rights Act and Voting Rights Act over the next two years.

The March on Washington was organized by the leaders the six large civil rights groups of the time. A peaceful demonstration, the protestors involved aimed to draw attention to the discrimination of Black Americans and their inability to find jobs created by the New Deal program. In a New York Times article written a few days before the march, we read, “In conception and in planning, the March on Washington is expressive of the American tradition of peaceable assembly and petition for a redress of grievances . . . the elimination of unequal treatment is the common responsibility of all of us. . .”

The March on Washington is perhaps best remembered for the speech given by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. in which he said, “I have a dream . . . I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed, ‘We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal.’ I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia, sons of former slaves and the sons of former slaveowners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood . . . I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.”

Less than one year after this iconic speech was delivered, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 into law, which prohibited discrimination in public places, integrated public schools, and ended employment discrimination.

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On This Day: Preserving Paradise

August 25, 2023August 29, 2023US HistoryLeave a Comment

On August 25, 1916, President Woodrow Wilson signed H.R. 15522, or the National Parks Service Organic Act, into law. The bill established the National Parks Service (NPS), which would oversee national parks as well as other important historic sites. In the century since, the national parks system has grown exponentially. In 2022, the National Park Service received 312 million visits.

Though the NPS was created in 1916, national parks existed for many years before that. In 1872, Congress passed a dedication law that created Yellowstone National Park, the first national park in the U.S. In the years that followed, they added many more national parks and monuments, including Zion National Park, Glacier National Park, and the Statue of Liberty National Monument. All these parks and monuments were under the authority of the Department of the Interior, but they were each being run by a different entity. As a result, there was little money or authority to truly preserve and protect these sites.

In 1916, the NPS Organic Act was passed that created the National Park Service to “promote and regulate the use of Federal areas known as national parks, monuments, and reservations . . . to conserve the scenery and natural and historic objects and the wild life therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations.” In the first two decades of the NPS, all national parks, monuments, and other properties were brought together under one management. The NPS hired rangers and marketed the parks to the American people. Thanks to the tireless efforts of the NPS, there are now more than 400 sites preserved for the enjoyment of anyone who wants to appreciate the variation and natural beauty of the United States or dig into her history.

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On This Day: Douglass Speaks

August 11, 2023August 29, 2023US HistoryLeave a Comment

On August 11, 1841, Frederick Douglass stood at a meeting of the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society and told his story. It was this speech that would launch his career as a prominent abolitionist. After this appearance, the Anti-Slavery Society invited him to work with them and planned for him to travel and tell his story to as many people as would listen. Within a few years, Douglass became an internationally famous orator, writer, and advocate for social justice.

Douglass was born a slave around the year 1818 in the state of Maryland. As a child, he was given some lessons in reading despite the fact that it was illegal to teach a slave to read. He continued his lessons in secret. Like all slaves, Douglass was abused physically and emotionally until he escaped to New York City in 1838. As he lived, married, worked, and attempted to avoid slave catchers, Douglass continued to read. He was inspired by the writings of abolitionists. This, combined with the urging of a Quaker friend, was what inspired him to attend the Anti-Slavery Society’s meeting.

Though Douglass had not anticipated speaking that night and had not prepared remarks, it was reported that “. . . cold [hearts] melted by his eloquence.” He was immediately invited to be an agent for the society. They sent him all over the country to tell his story and urge nonviolent resistance of slavery. In 1845, Douglass published Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Written by Himself. The book was a success in the US as well as Europe. This success put him in the public eye and made it dangerous for him to remain in the US. He traveled to the UK, speaking and promoting the ideals of abolition, until his English supporters raised enough money to buy his freedom.

Upon returning to the US, he spent the rest of his life as an advocate. He was an advisor to President Lincoln, a strong proponent of the Fourteenth Amendment, a supporter of women’s rights, a US Marshal, and a newspaper owner. As long as Frederick Douglass drew breath, he never stopped pushing for the enfranchisement of every American under the US Constitution.

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Buy Frederick Douglass’ books from an independent bookstore here: https://bookshop.org/search?keywords=frederick+douglass

On This Day: 44

August 4, 2023August 29, 2023US HistoryLeave a Comment

Barack Obama was born on August 4, 1961 in Hawaii. He would go on to become a Columbia University graduate, a community organizer, president of the Harvard Law Review, an Illinois Senator, and the 44^th President of the United States.

Barack Obama was raised in Indonesia and Hawaii, where he graduated from high school. He attended Occidental College and Columbia University, earning a degree in political science. After graduating, Obama moved to Chicago to work as a community organizer on the city’s South Side. He later attended Harvard Law School where he became the first African American to be president of the Harvard Law Review. It was while he was working as an associate during law school that he met Michelle Robinson, a fellow lawyer, who he would marry in 1992. They have two daughters.

In 1996, Obama became a member of the state senate of Illinois. Four years later, he put in a bid for a seat in the US House of Representatives, which he lost. In 2004, he succeeded in securing a seat in the US Senate representing the state of Illinois. In 2007, Barack Obama announced that he would run for President of the United States. The first African-American president, he was elected to two terms.

Perhaps his most lasting success as president came with the passage of the Affordable Care Act, or Obamacare, which provided health coverage for millions of uninsured and lowered costs for others. The act also prohibited insurance companies from denying care due to preexisting conditions. Obama also won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2009 for his “extraordinary efforts to strengthen international diplomacy and cooperation between peoples.”

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Buy President Obama’s most recent memoir from an independent bookstore here: https://bookshop.org/search?keywords=barack+obama

On This Day: Of the Lost Generation

July 21, 2023July 31, 202320th Century, US HistoryLeave a Comment

On July 21, 1899, Ernest Hemingway was born in Oak Park, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago. A world-famous writer who championed a minimalistic writing style, he created a body of work that continues to inspire generations of readers.

Ernest Hemingway Photograph Collection, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston

After Hemingway graduated from high school, he longed for adventure. He took a position as a reporter in Kansas City as he repeatedly tried to enlist in the US Army. Eventually, he became an ambulance driver in World War I. This experience greatly affected his world view and his writing. It was also the inspiration for his famous novel, The Sun Also Rises.

After being discharged from the Army, Hemingway took a job as a foreign correspondent in France. There, he met a group of American expatriates often referred to as the Lost Generation. This group included Gertrude Stein and F. Scott Fitzgerald. The Lost Generation, or those who were young adults at the end of WWI, were considered lost because they found themselves in a post-war society in which the values and teaching of their parents no longer made sense for their own situations. They struggled to advance in life, felt the weight of materialism, and were emotionally beaten down by their experiences. This life and attitude greatly influenced Hemingway’s works. He explored themes of war, masculinity, love, and the meaning of life. He wrote novels such as A Farewell to Arms, For Whom the Bell Tolls, and The Old Man and the Sea. He also penned short stories like “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” and “Hills Like White Elephants.” He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954.

While his personal life was not without its struggles, including bouts of depression, his art with its pursuit of meaning and frank exploration of the human experience has resonated strongly with readers for the last 100 years. It’s possible that his work is even more relevant now among Millennials, a group who identify strongly with the Lost Generation. Are Millennials the new Lost Generation? What would Hemingway have to say about their sense of disenfranchisement? Pick up a Farewell to Arms and find out.

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Order Hemingway’s works from an independent bookstore, like this one: https://www.strandbooks.com/search-results?page=1&ernest%20hemingway&searchVal=ernest%20hemingway&type=product

On This Day: The Presidential Succession Act

July 18, 2023July 31, 202319th Century, US HistoryLeave a Comment

On July 18, 1947, President Harry Truman signed the Presidential Succession Act, which determined the line of succession if the president dies in office or is otherwise unable to perform the duties of president. Almost two decades later, this act became the 25^th Amendment. Since that time, the 25^th Amendment has been invoked six times and is an essential part of the operation of the United States government.

Prior to the Presidential Succession Act, there were two different plans for succession. Under the Congress of 1792, the President pro tempore of the Senate and then the Speaker of the House would become acting president until a new president was elected. The Presidential Succession Act of 1886 then changed the succession to allow the Secretary of State to become acting president in case the president was removed. In 1947, President Truman needed to appoint a new Secretary of State. Members of Congress became concerned that under the current rules of succession, Truman would be in a position to choose his own successor. They felt that was not true to the democratic process that the framers intended. It was this circumstance that caused Congress to draft a new succession act.

Under the Presidential Succession Act of 1947, if the President of the United States dies, resigns, or for whatever reason is unable to perform the offices of president, the duties become those of the Vice President, then the Speaker of the House, President Pro Tempore of the Senate, and then Secretary of State. It also indicates that if the vice president leaves office, the president can nominate a new vice president who will need to be confirmed by Congress. The act also allows the president, in cases where he is temporarily unable to perform his duties, to submit written notice to Congress, and the vice president can take their place. This portion of the act has been used in cases of medical procedures during which the president was under anesthesia.

Following the assassination of President Kennedy, there was confusion about what the proper procedure was to swear in Vice President Johnson as president. This encouraged Congress to ratify the Presidential Succession Act as the 25^th Amendment to the Constitution of the United States.

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On This Day: Old Man Eloquent

July 11, 2023July 11, 2023US History, US RevolutionLeave a Comment

On July 11, 1767, John Quincy Adams was born. He was to become a senator, our nation’s sixth president, and a member of the House of Representatives. Though his ascension to the office of president was controversial, Adams is remembered for being well-spoken, intelligent, and independent.

Though there is much that is interesting about the life of John Quincy Adams, one of his most compelling stories is that of his path to the presidency. John Quincy Adams became president despite losing both the popular and electoral vote in the 1824 election. The 1824 election had four candidates: John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, William Crawford, and Henry Clay. When none of the candidates received a majority of the electoral college votes, the fate of the election fell into the hands of the House of Representatives, as outlined in the Twelfth Amendment. Only the three candidates with the largest number of electoral votes could be considered, knocking Clay from the race. Clay, who was not a fan of Jackson, threw his weight behind Adams, ensuring his election to the office of president. When, a few days later, Adams offered Clay the position of Secretary of State, Jackson and his constituents called the affair a “corrupt bargain.”

It has been suggested that this election is what lead to the strict adherence to a two-party system in the US. No party wanted to risk splitting their electoral college votes and losing an election like this again. It was perhaps also for this reason that the 1828 election between Adams and Jackson is considered one of the meanest campaigns in history. In any case, Adams did not win reelection but shortly after became the first US president to become a member of the House of Representatives after his term as president. He remained there for 17 years, earning himself the nickname “Old Man Eloquent.” In 1848, he suffered a stroke on the House floor and quite literally died serving his country.

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June History Hits: The Battle of Little Bighorn

June 23, 2023June 30, 2023Uncategorized, US HistoryLeave a Comment

On June 25, 1876, a legendary clash between the United States 7^th Calvary and Native American tribes led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse unfolded on the plains of Montana. Often romanticized and mythologized, the Battle of Little Bighorn, commonly known as Custer’s Last Stand, forever altered the course of relations between Native Americans and the US government.

The Battle of Little Bighorn occurred against the backdrop of rapid expansion of the United States into the western territories and the continued encroachment upon Native American lands. The discovery of gold in the Black Hills had ignited a gold rush, leading to a surge of settlers in the region who disregarded treaties made with the tribes already living there. This influx threatened the way of life for the tribes who relied on the buffalo herds that roamed the area.

Two iconic figures sit at the center of this conflict: General George Custer and Sitting Bull. Custer, an ambitious military leader, gained fame during the Civil War but sought to revive his tarnished reputation after a series of setbacks. Sitting Bull, a visionary Lakota leader, had earned the respect of his people for his resistance against settlers.

On June 25, Custer’s forces, about 700 men, encountered a gathering of Native American soldiers, about 2,500- 4,000 strong. Ignoring warnings and underestimating his adversaries, Custer divided his troops and attempted to surround the Native American encampment, but they were overwhelmed by the counterattack. Custer and all of his men were killed in what became known as Custer’s Last Stand. The exact sequence of events during the battle remain the subject of intense speculation and historical analysis.

News of Custer’s defeat sent shockwaves across the nation. Public opinion vilified the Native American tribes and demanded retribution. The US government responded with increased military campaigns, leading to the eventual confinement of the Plains Indians onto reservations. However, as time passed, the perception of Custer’s Last Stand began to change. Critics questioned Custer’s decision-making and his treatment of the tribes. The bravery displayed by the Native American warriors added a new perspective to the narrative, fostering a deeper understanding of their struggle against the relentless forces of “Manifest Destiny.”

The Battle of Little Bighorn serves as a reminder of the importance of understanding diverse perspectives, the consequences of unchecked expansion, and the necessity of honoring treaties and preserving cultural heritage.

Learn more here:

https://www.nps.gov/libi/learn/historyculture/battle-story.htm

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-the-battle-of-little-bighorn-was-won-63880188/